Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru also called Pandit ( Teacher ) Nehru (born November 14, 1889, in Allahabad, died May 27, 1964, in New Delhi ) - Indian politician, leader of the socialist wing of the Indian National Congress during the struggle for independence against British domination.
On August 15, 1947, he became the first prime minister of India, holding this function until his death. Father of Indira Gandhi (third prime minister of India) and grandfather of Rajiv Gandhi (sixth prime minister of India).
In 1929, after the Indian National Congress conducted a campaign for the self-determination of India (with the participation of Mahatma Gandhi ), he became chairman of the party. After speaking in 1942 with the declaration of independence of India, he and his colleagues were arrested. After being released from prison, he took part in negotiations which resulted in the creation of two independent states - India and Pakistan. Nehru's policy after taking office as prime minister was based on economic interventionism and participation in the non-engagement movement during the Cold War.
As the leader of India, he implemented the principles of non-commitment and secularism, created a multi-party democracy in the country, and established a republican system. During his reign, India became a regional hegemon in the region of South Asia. Along with Josip Broz Tito, Sukarno, and Gamala Abdel Nasser, the leading figure in the Non-Engaged Movement. Under the leadership of Nehru, Congress won the election in 1951, 1957, and 1962. Initially, he sought the possibility of an alliance with China, but this policy was gradually revised in favor of better relations with the West, and at the end of his rule there was a Sino-Indian war.
Biography
Youth and early career
The governess and home teachers (mainly English) dealt with Jawaharlala's education. Under the influence of a teacher, Ferdinand T. Brooks, Nehru became interested in theosophy. At the age of thirteen, Nehru joined his Theosophical Society through his family friend Annie Besant. His interest in theosophy, however, did not prove lasting, and soon after his teacher left, Nehru left the Society. Although Nehru was skeptical of religion, his youthful fascination with theosophy influenced his later interests; Nehru devoted himself to studying Buddhist and Hindu scriptures. When he was 15, his father sent him to Harrow School.
In his youth, he was an avid nationalist. His nationalist views were reinforced by Boer Wars and the Russo-Japanese War. During the war between the Russian Empire and Japan, he sympathized with Japan, just as many Asians thought that Japan was guarding the freedom of Asian nations. When Nehru began studying in a school in Harrow, Great Britain in 1905, he was influenced by the thoughts of the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose book he received from renowned British historian Georg Macaulay Trevelyan as an award in scientific achievements. He saw in Garibladim a revolutionary hero whose ideas could be reflected in India.
In October 1907, Nehru continued his education at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. He graduated with honors in natural sciences in 1910. During this period, he studied politics, economics, history, and literature. His political and economic views were influenced by the work of thinkers and economists such as George Bernard Shaw, Herbert George Wells, John Maynard Keynes, Bertrand Russell, Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, and Meredith Townsend. After graduating in 1910, he went to London. He was admitted to law studies at London's Inns of Court School of Law (Inner Temple) for two years. During the London period he learned the philosophy of the left-wing Fabian Society, he was particularly interested in the views of Beatrice Webb. He passed his graduation exam in 1912 and returned to India in August, where he started working as a lawyer.
Early activities at the Indian National Congress
He became interested in politics during his stay in Great Britain. In 1912 he took part in the annual session of the Indian National Congress in Patna. In 1913 he joined a congress organization in the United Provinces. Initially, he was embarrassed by the party's elites and the party did not live up to his expectations - Congress was then a moderate party. Despite his doubts, he joined the party and, as part of his political activities, organized assistance to the civil rights movement in the Union of South Africa. In 1913, he participated in raising funds for the civil rights campaign led by Mahatma Gandhi. Later, he participated in a campaign against violations of labor rights and other discrimination against Hindus on the part of British colonial authorities.
The outbreak of World War I strongly polarized Indian society. Most educated Hindus believed that war could weaken colonialists. According to the biography by Frank Moraes, Nehru sympathized with France because of his admiration for the culture of this country. He believed that British policy support during the war did not serve Indian interests and even laughed at the Indian Civil Service (ICS) as a representative of the policy dictated by the United Kingdom government. During the war, he volunteered to work in Christian, humanitarian organization Joannici Work of Help. He became one of the Joannite secretaries in Allahabad.
He took part in protests against the censorship bill in India. During the war, he belonged to representatives of the radical-independence wing of the party, which demanded that India be given autonomy. The radicals remained in the minority and the direction of the congressional movement was determined by the central Gopal Krishna Gokhale who wrote that "thinking about independence is crazy". Nehru's father, Motilal, was also a fan of the moderate wing. The influence of the centrist fraction in Congress began to weaken after the death of its leader, Gokhale in 1915.
After the death of Gokhale, representatives of the radical wing, ie Annie Beasant, and Bal Gangadhar Tilakthey began to demand that the National Congress demand the transformation of India from a colony to a dominion (so far the Congress has only fought to improve the situation of the Indians). This postulate was rejected in 1915 by a moderate majority of the party leadership. In 1916, radicals formed the National Movement for Autonomy. The organization proposed the transformation of India into British dominions based on which Canada, Australia, or New Zealand. He was a member of both the National Movement for Autonomy and the Indian National Congress.
A major change and direction to move away from early IKN policy was the conclusion of the pact in Lucknow, which was supported by Nehru. The pact was signed during the annual Congress meeting in December 1916. As a result of the agreement, Muslims and Hindus were to work together in the anti-colonial movement. The agreement was signed by the Congress and the Muslim League. At the congress in Lucknow, Nehru met Gandhi for the first time.
In 1916 he married Kamala Kaul. Their only daughter, Indira, was born in 1917. Kamala gave birth to a boy in November 1924, but he died a week after he was born. In 1917 he became the private secretary of Anna Besant, leader of the National Movement for Autonomy. When Besant was arrested and interned in June 1917, Congress and other Indian organizations threatened to start protests if she was not released. The government, under pressure from public opinion, quickly released the imprisoned activist. Nehru's first serious commitment came in 1920.
He became the leader of Congress in the United Province (now Uttar Pradesh). After the incidents in Chaura Chauri, when there were armed clashes between the Indians and the British colonial forces, the Indian National Congress suspended in practice the cooperation of the movement at the national level. Nehru remained true to Gandhi's views and did not join the moderate Swaraj Party formed by his father. Soon British repression fell not only on Jawaharlal but also on his father. Jawaharlal and Motilal were arrested on December 6, 1921.
Jawaharlal was released after three months, i.e. in March 1922, when Gandhi had already canceled the previous suspension of cooperation with the government. This decision was a severe blow to Nehru. In 1922 he took part in subsequent speeches by Gandhi. This time it led to a longer stay in prison, he received a prison sentence of one and a half years. He served 9 months in detention in Makhno. He was released on January 31, 1923.
As the secretary-general of the party
In the 1920s, he was elected secretary-general of the party, he held this office for two terms. His first term of office began during the session in Kakinada in 1923. During his tenure, Nehru collaborated with Dr. NS Hardiker, founder of Hindustani Seva Dal (1923). Seva Dal was a grass-roots organization within the National Congress, grouping supporters of Gandhism. He was elected secretary-general for the second time during the session in Madras in 1927. During his term as secretary-general, together with Chandra Bose, he was considered a representative of the radical wing and those activists rejected the demand for a dominion to be created for the independence of India.
Trip to Europe
In 1926, Jawaharlal and his family left for Europe, it was caused by Kamala's health, who was recommended to go to Switzerland for sanatorium treatment. He played a leading role in publicizing Hindu demands outside the country. He sought foreign allies for independence issues and made contacts with national liberation and democratic movements around the world. His efforts paid off, in 1927, Congress was invited to attend a congress of oppressed nations in Brussels, Belgium.
This meeting was to coordinate the struggle of nations fighting for independence against imperialism. Nehru became a representative of India at the congress and was elected to the Executive Council of the League against Imperialism - the international body formed during the congress. On the tenth anniversary of the October Revolution, he visited the USSR. A visit to Belgium and the USSR influenced the further evolution of his political views. His stay in Europe ended with a trip to the Soviet Union. Nehru returned to India with his family when Kemali's health improved.
"Architect of India"
In 1927 he presented a resolution in which he demanded "full national independence", thus becoming one of the first leaders of the congressional party who believed that India should break all ties with the British Empire. This declaration was rejected by Congress because of opposition from Gandhi. In 1928, Gandhi proposed a resolution in which Congress called on the British government to grant India dominion status, which status was to be granted to India within two years. Nehru and Chandra Bose did not like the proposal. On December 29, 1929, at a session in Lahore, he officially took over the leadership of the party. As a leader, he pushed for a resolution calling on the British to give India full independence.
At midnight on New Year's Eve in 1929, he hung a three-colored Indian flag on the banks of the Ravi River in Lahore. Under the leadership of Congress in 1929, he developed a policy of Congress and future independent India. The goals of the Congress were to be - freedom of religion; right to the association; freedom of speech and thought; equality of all before the law - regardless of caste, color or religion; protection of regional languages and cultures; safeguarding employee interests; lifting immunity; nationalization Industry; socialism and the construction of secular India.
The resolution was developed by Nehru at the turn of 1929/31 and was ratified by the All-Indian Congress Committee chaired by Gandhi. After the Congress session in 1929, he was recognized as the most important leader of the Indian independence movement, while Gandhi retreated to the role of a spiritual guide. In the 1920s, he made contact with the workers' movement in India, mainly with the trade union movement, and took part in the congress of the Indian Congress of Trade Unions. In 1929, he combined the post of Secretary-General of the National Congress with the post of President of the Congress of Trade Unions.
A new direction of Congress
In the 1930s, Gandhi resigned from his membership in Congress but did not break his contacts with Nehru and his party. Nehru's popularity was increased by the 1935 election in which Congress gained power in most states' governments. The Muslim League also chaired by Muhammad Ali Jinnah in the election. Ali Jinnah was a rival of Nehru, Jawaharlal wanted the secularist Abul Kalam Azad to be the Muslim leader. Gandhi in the dispute between Azad and Jinnah took the side of Jinnah who in the next decade became the creator of Pakistan. Support for the future socialist system of India was difficult to achieve. Right-wing Congressmen such as Sardar Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari opposed the leftist Nehru program.
The program was supported by left-wing congressmen Maulana Azad and Subhas Chandra Bose. In 1936, Nehru, Azad, and Bose initiated the dismissal of the current conservative President of Congress, Dr. Prasada. The press as president was replaced by Nehru, who held this office in 1936–1937. In 1938 he was replaced by Chandra Bose, who held the office until 1939, and from 1940 to 1946 he was the president of Azad. During the second term of office of the Secretary-General, he proposed certain resolutions regarding India's foreign policy.
From then on, he was given a free hand in shaping India's foreign policy. Nehru established relations between Congress and governments around the world. During the escalation of the crisis in Europe related to the expansionist policy of fascist countries, Congress was against fascism and democracy. He developed future plans for the central planning of the Indian economy. In 1938, he appointed the State Planning Commission, which was to create economic plans already implemented in independent India. However, many plans by Nehru and his allies were rejected due to the division of India in 1947.
As one of the first leaders of the independence movement, he was against authoritarianism countries ruled by Indian princes. Before he assumed power, the independence movement was limited only to territories under British direct rule. During the fighting between Sikhs and corrupt mahants, he was imprisoned in the principality of Nabha. In 1927, he co-founded the All-Indian United People's Conference - this organization supported the population of princely countries. In 1935 he was elected chairman of the conference.
Civil disobedience - "Salt Campaign"
In protest against the British increasing the salt tax, Gandhi proposed to carry out civil disobedience. Nehru (and most Congressional leaders) were initially ambivalent about the plan. Gandhi decided to start protests, which quickly gained widespread support, Congressional leaders realized the power of protests, and Nehru himself joined the group of supporters. Nehru headed a procession that symbolically protectively produced some salt. On April 14, during a journey between Allahabad and Raipur, he was arrested and charged with violating the salt law. As a result, he was sentenced to six months in prison for "inciting revolt." He served his sentence in Naini prison in Allahabad.
During his sentence as President of Congress, he appointed Gandhi, but he refused to accept this function, and his father, Motilal, succeeded Nehru. At the beginning of the "salt campaign" protest, Jawaharlal's father gave Congress the residence of the Nehru family, where the central authorities of the organization were located. Soon Motilal was arrested and sent to Naini prison where his son was already staying. During his imprisonment, the civil disobedience action accelerated, another arrest began and the colonial authorities began to shoot at the protesters.
On October 11, 1930, Jawaharlal was released from prison because of his father's poor health. Staying at liberty lasted a little longer than a week. On October 19, he was arrested again. The British authorities considered Nehru to be too dangerous an activist, issued special recommendations for Nehru to be arrested again and sentenced to prison at the earliest opportunity. In October 1930, Nehru received another sentence, this time he received two years in prison. On January 1, Nehru's wife Kamala was thrown in prison On October 19, he was arrested again.
The British authorities considered Nehru to be too dangerous an activist, issued special recommendations for Nehru to be arrested again and sentenced to prison at the earliest opportunity. In October 1930, Nehru received another sentence, this time he received two years in prison. On January 1, Nehru's wife Kamala was thrown in prison On October 19, he was arrested again. The British authorities considered Nehru to be too dangerous an activist, issued special recommendations for Nehru to be arrested again and sentenced to prison at the earliest opportunity. In October 1930, Nehru received another sentence, this time he received two years in prison. On January 1, Nehru's wife Kamala was thrown in prison. To facilitate talks with Congress about a possible agreement and ending the protest, In January 1931 the authorities released about 20 members of Congress from prison.
Jawaharlal and Kamala were released several days earlier due to further deterioration of Motilal's health. Jawaharlal's father died in a dream on February 6, 1931. On behalf of Congress, Gandhi joined the negotiations with the British. Gandhi's talks with the viceroy lasted for three weeks, on March 5, 1931, an agreement was announced. The conditions set by the British disappointed Nehru. He particularly protested one of the articles of the pact, which spoke about the problems of the constitution and federation of India, but did not mention anything about independence, which was one of the demands made during the salt campaign.
Salt protests caught the attention of world public opinion, the world increasingly recognized the legitimacy of Congressional demands. Nehru's participation in the protests increased his role in Congress and improved his relationship with Gandhi. The next arrest of Nehru took place on December 26, 1931, after clashes between Congress and the government. Congress was provoked by a government move that violated the assumptions of the Irwin (viceroy) pact of March this year. Nehru was arrested during the organization of the peasant movement in the United Provinces. When he was in prison, the disobedience campaign weakened.
In September 1932 and May 1933, Gandhi carried out a hunger strike as a protest against the British breaking the terms of the pact. Nehru thought Gandhi's fasting was illogical and irrational. August 30, 1933 year Nehru was released from prison due to the deteriorating health of his mother, Swarup Rani.
Wife Disease
At the beginning of 1931, on the advice of doctors, Nehru went with Kamala and Indira on vacation in Ceylon. It was supposed to be his last vacation with Kamala before his long stay in prison and her subsequent illness that caused her death. The arrest and, as a consequence, the prison sentence took place on February 12, 1934, this time he was accused of inciting rebellion. On August 11, due to Kamala's poor health, the prison authorities released Nehru for 10 days. As Kamala's condition continued to deteriorate, the family decided to send her along with Indira to Europe for climate treatment. Under pressure from public opinion, Jawaharlal was released from prison, thanks to which he went to his sick wife, who was in a serious condition and was in the hospital, she died on February 28, 1936. After the death of his wife, he returned to his homeland. He became the chairman of the National Congress. In October 1940, he was imprisoned for the eighth time. He spent a year there because there was an early release of Congress activists and activists.
Another Trip to Europe
When in the mid-1930s the world began to drift towards the next world war, in 1936 Nehru left for Switzerland, shortly before the death of his seriously ill wife, to look after her in the sanatorium. Despite the tense international situation, Nehru emphasized that in the event of war, India's place should be placed next to democratic countries, though, India should fight on the side of Great Britain and France only if they are granted independence. A visit to Europe in 1936 became a breakthrough in Nehru's political and economic thought.
The future prime minister became interested in Marxism and socialist thinking. His next imprisonment allowed him to study Marxism in more detail. He was interested in the ideas and assumptions of Marxism while repelling some of the theses proposed by Karl Marx. In the sphere of economics, Nehru remained a Marxist, he wanted to introduce Marxist economic postulates to Indian conditions. In Europe, he collaborated closely with Chandra Bose, but these activists split up in the late 1930s when Bose began seeking fascist support, and at the same time, Nehru supported the Spanish republicans fighting against General Franco's army and was a strong anti-Nazi.
When people from many countries volunteered to form International Brigades to fight the fascist forces in Spain, Nehru along with his assistant VK Krishna Menon went to Spain to support Indian volunteers. He refused to meet the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini when he expressed the desire to meet. Even then, Nehru was perceived in the world as a fighter for democracy and freedom. Nehru was in Geneva when the League of Nations discussed how to solve the Czech crisis and then went to London.
World War II
When World War II broke out, Viceroy Linlithgow announced the participation of British India in the war without consulting Indian representatives. Nehru hastily returned from a visit to China, announcing that India's sympathies in the conflict between democracy and fascism should turn to democracy against fascism. After long Congressional deliberation, Nehru informed the government that it would cooperate with the British under certain conditions - first, Great Britain must guarantee full independence of India after the war and allow elections for the constitutional assembly, secondly even though Indian Armed Forces will remain under British control. , Hindus must participate in central administration. Viceroy Linlithgow did not take these demands seriously and rejected Congress's demands.
On October 23, 1939, Congress condemned the British attitude and called on Congressional Ministers to resign in protest. Nehru called for a protest to Jinnah and his Muslim League, but Muslims backed British decisions. In March 1940, Jinnah introduced a "Pakistani resolution" according to which Muslims are a nation and must have their homeland. "Pakistan" was to become the homeland of Muslims. On October 8, 1940, Linlithgow approved Nehru's conditions, but he decided that India would become a dominion, but he did not specify the date of the event.
In the absence of British specificity, Gandhi and Nehru abandoned the original position of supporting Great Britain and began a limited campaign of civil disobedience. Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four years in prison. He was released from prison after a year (three days before the bombing) they abandoned the original position of supporting Great Britain and began a limited campaign of civil disobedience. Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four years in prison.
He was released from prison after a year (three days before the bombing) they abandoned the original position of supporting Great Britain and began a limited campaign of civil disobedience. Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four years in prison. He was released from prison after a year (three days before the bombing)Pearl Harbor, Hawaii), along with other Congressional activists. In the spring of 1942, Japanese forces through Burma (now Myanmar ) reached the borders of India. The British government agreed to make certain concessions to India, including some made by Nehru at the beginning of the war. Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent Minister Strafford Cripps to India, sharing Nehru's leftist political views. Nehru was enthusiastic about the Indian-British compromise, Gandhi was skeptical about him, as a result of which Crips' mission failed.
Despite the differences, Gandhi appointed Nehru as his political successor and called on the British to leave India. Although Nehru did not want to weaken the Allied war effort, he had no other choice and joined Gandhi's demands. After a resolution at the party congress of January 8, 1942, in Mumbai (now Mumbai), which adopted a resolution requiring the British to leave India, the entire Congress working committee, including Gandhi and Nehru, was arrested and imprisoned. Nehru left the prison in June 1945.
Prime Minister's Function
Division of India's
After being released from prison, Nehru together with representatives of IKN met with colonial authorities, the British entrusted them with the task of forming the Indian government. On August 2, 1946, a provisional government was formed and Nehru became its prime minister. When Jawaharlal Nehru argued for the full unity of India, the government's session was boycotted by Muslim representatives. In May 1947, he began to lean toward independent dominance in independent India within the British Commonwealth. At the turn of the spring and summer of 1947, Nehru revised his views on the future of India - he agreed first to divide Punjab and Bengal, and then to divide all of India. On June 3, after unsuccessful attempts to formulate a coalition government, he was reluctant to support the British division plan of India, the decision to divide the country was confirmed on June 15, 1947, by the All-Indian Congress Committee.
In Independent India
On August 15, he became the prime minister of independent India. Even as the prime minister, he made this day the country's independence day. The course set by Nehru included: maintaining peace, liberating oppressed nations, eliminating discrimination, poverty, disease, and ignorance. As the prime minister, he was struggling with the mass migration of the population related to the division of the country, not everywhere a peaceful exchange of population - there were bloody clashes between Hindus and Muslims in the Province of Borderland and Punjab.
On January 30, 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was killed; the radical Hindu Nathurama Godse turned out to be the killer. Gandhi's death was a severe blow to Nehru, a two-week mourning period was announced in the country. After the murder, the government took decisive action against religious fanatics and suppressed the speeches of fundamentalist organizations - Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, the Muslim National Guard, and Khaksars. The assassination of Gandhi contributed to the awareness of citizens Hindus who have turned away from religious parties.
In addition to the post of the prime minister, he was the minister of foreign affairs. He defined the main directions and aspirations of Indian foreign policy relatively early. He wanted to stay away from the powers that led to world wars. During his reign, Nehru often turned to his daughter Indira for help, who helped him with personal matters. Indira moved to the headquarters of Nehru and participated in his travels around India and the world. During her father's rule, she was considered to be someone like the chief of staff of the government.
Economic Policy
The government adopted a mixed economy model. Nehru implemented economic reforms to build the Indian version of economic planning. The government managed strategic branches of industry, i.e. mining, energy, heavy industry. Programs for redistribution of land, construction of irrigation channels, and there, social development (popularization of cottage industry and professional activation in rural areas) were carried out. Fertilizers were popularized in agriculture, which contributed to the increase in agricultural production. He built huge dams, which he called the "new temples of India", started irrigation works, production of hydropower, launched the program of using nuclear energy.
The industrial policy of the Nehru government, whose main objectives were gathered in the resolution "Industrial Policy 1956", led to increased product diversification and the emergence of heavy industry in India. The economy enjoyed a stable growth rate of 2.5% per year. In 1951, based on the Planning Commission of India, he made the first five-year plan . The plan assumed increasing government investment in industry and agriculture. During his rule fertilizers were spread in India, thus increasing agricultural production. A series of social development programs were launched to spread various forms of cottage industry and increase professional activation in rural India. How the economic policy was conducted aroused opposition from the Marxist opposition - some of the opposition felt that the economy of India under the mantle of democratic socialism was moving towards capitalism.
Agriculture
India, despite progress in increasing agricultural production, was struggling with food shortages. Agricultural reform and rapid industrialization programs have been implemented. The agricultural reform was implemented, as a result of which vast tracts of land were distributed, but part of the land in the hands of landowners was not parceled out. Attempts at agricultural reform were thwarted by rural class elites who had a strong influence in the right-wing factions of Congress, as opposed to the policies of the socialist faction. Until the early 1960s, agricultural production increased steadily. successful irrigation projects and the distribution of land that has been cultivated.
Modeled on existing agricultural colleges in the United States, it created national colleges. These universities worked with high-yielding wheat and rice varieties, Mexico and the Philippines. Minister Subramaniam imported a large number of high-yielding cereals into India, who turned out to be even bolder than American government advisers in terms of innovation. Efficient varieties were used in the 1960s, during the so-called green revolution. The revolution consisted in increasing agricultural production. Progress in agriculture slowed down a series of monsoons.
Administrative reform
Until the new constitution was adopted, the government used the British Indian constitution of 1935. British India, which included today's India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, were divided into two types of areas: British Indian provinces, which were managed directly by British officials responsible to the Governor-General of India, and provinces, which were managed by princes - local hereditary rulers who recognized British sovereignty in return for local autonomy, in most cases established as a result of the treaty.
In the period from 1947 to 1950, the territories of the princely states were politically integrated with the independent Indian state. The attached territories were organized in new provinces such as Rajputana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, and Vindhya Pradesh. The provinces consisted of many princely states, including Mysore, Hyderabad, Bhopal, and Bilaspur. The new constitution of India entered into force on January 26, 1950. The constitution was created in India, a sovereign democratic republic.
The 1950 constitution distinguished three main types of provinces: the part of the province that was formerly governed by the governor of India, ruled by the elected governor and parliament. Part B, they were former princely states or groups of such states, these provinces were managed by the ruler of the princely state, the authorities in these provinces were taken over by Rajpramukhas appointed by the President of India. Part C, these were states managed by both provincial commissioners and princes, according to the constitution they were to be managed by a commissioner appointed by the President of India.
Part D, these were ruled by an elected governor and parliament. Part B, they were former princely states or groups of such states, these provinces were managed by the ruler of the princely state, the authorities in these provinces were taken over by Rajpramukhas appointed by the President of India. Part C, these were states managed by both provincial commissioners and princes, according to the constitution they were to be managed by a commissioner appointed by the President of India. Part D, these were ruled by an elected governor and parliament. Part B, they were former princely states or groups of such states, these provinces were managed by the ruler of the princely state, the authorities in these provinces were taken over by Rajpramukhas appointed by the President of India.
Part C, these were states managed by both provincial commissioners and princes, according to the constitution they were to be managed by a commissioner appointed by the President of India. Part D, these were Andaman and Nicobars, managed by a governor appointed by the central government. In December 1953, he appointed the United States Reorganization Commission.
The committee was headed by Fazal Ali, hence the US Reorganization Committee was often referred to as the Fazal Ali Committee. In 1955, the commission produced a report recommending the reorganization of the states of India. In 1956, the government developed an administrative reform, as part of the reform, Part B, Part C, and Part D were abolished.
Foreign policy
The United States and the Soviet Union competed with each other to win India as an ally in the Cold War. Good relations with the British Empire were maintained, as part of the London Declaration, India agreed that in January 1950, it would join the Commonwealth of Nations and accept the British monarch as a symbol uniting the WN. The relationship of most citizens to signing the declaration was positive, the decision was criticized only by the far left and far-right groups. Internationally, he was a strong supporter of the United Nations and a promoter of pacifism. He was one of the pioneers of non-engagement policy and a co-founder of the Non-Engaged Movement, a bloc of countries remaining neutral and independent in the period of struggle between blocs of countries headed by the US and USSR.
India has taken the initiative in important Asian problems. The conference of 29 Asian and African states in Bandung convened by India was the greatest achievement on the international stage of the 1950s. The conference was also attended by representatives of the pro-Western countries of the region, and therefore there was a high probability of a clash between supporters of the pro-American course and supporters of non-involvement, which Nehru mediation did not allow. The conference was dominated by matters of anti-colonialism, peace, and increasing the role of Asian and African countries. Delegates from African and Asian countries decided to unite "in the fight against colonialism and racial discrimination".
In July 1956 he co-organized a meeting on the island of Vang in the Brioni archipelago. The meeting discussed the principles of cooperation between countries that did not belong to military and political blocs. Over the next two years, the "Independent Three" collaborated. The First Conference of Heads of Government of non-aligned countries took place in September 1961 in Yugoslavia. 25 countries took part in the conference, and 3 as observers. In the following years, more countries joined the group, as well as national liberation groups.
In 1956, he criticized the joint invasion of the British, French, and Israelis on the Suez Canal. As the prime minister of India and the leader of the Non-Engaged Movement, he tried to lead to a truce and a fair assessment of both sides of the conflict. He gained in this ally in the form of the President of the United States, Dwight Eisenhower, who managed to curb the influence of France and Great Britain. The Suez crisis has significantly increased India's prestige in Third World countries. During the crisis, an Indian diplomat, Menon persuaded Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser to compromise with the West. India contributed to building the image of Nasser as a compromised man in Western countries.
Even after the Suez crisis, he maintained good relations with Great Britain. He participated in the arbitration of Great Britain, the World Bank, and Pakistan. In 1960, Great Britain, India, and the World Bank signed a treaty with the Pakistani leader Ayub Khan. Thanks to this, Pakistan gave India access to the main rivers of the Punjab region. Once again the role of minister Krishna Menon increased - the American magazine Time recognized the minister as the second most powerful man in India.
Seizure of Portuguese colonies
In 1954, after anti-colonial riots in Portugal's Dadra of Nagarhawela, Nehru occupied the disputed area, and after years of unsuccessful negotiations, in 1961 authorized the Indian Army to liberate another Portuguese colony, Goa. The province was officially incorporated into India and this decision was enthusiastically received in India. Some opposition criticized the government for using armed forces against the Portuguese colonial authorities of Goa. On the other hand, the use of military potential brought him popularity among right-wing and far-right groups.
Pancha Sila
In 1954, Nehru and China signed five principles of peaceful coexistence known in India as Lord's Sila (from the word Lord's: five, Sila: virtues). It was a set of rules that governed Indian-Chinese relations, their first official codification in the form of a treaty was included in the agreement between China and India in 1954. They were included in the preamble to the Agreement between the Tibetan Region of China and India, signed in Beijing on April 29, 1954. Pact negotiations were held in Delhi from December 1953 to April 1954.
The treaty concerned the disputed territories of Aksai and South Tibet, the treaty was in force until 1960, and since 1970 the five principles were again respected and contributed to the re-normalization of relations between states. Five principles were strengthened during the rule of Indira Gandhi and the three-year rule of the People's Party (1977-1980). Good relations deteriorated due to, among others: "cartographic war". Admittedly, in April 1960, Nehru met with the Chinese prime minister on border disparities, but it did not bring agreement or remove differences. "I think (conflict with the PRC) has deeply affected him and harms him.
He got worse. Everything he built was threatened: India was to adopt a military position, which he hated, "claimed K. Menon. In later years, the government participated in and gave Chinese-Indian border disputes political asylum of the Dalai Lama (who fled the PRC).
National Security Policy
In 1948, Prime Minister Nehru conducted a plebiscite in Kashmir under UN auspices. Kashmir is a disputed territory between India and Pakistan, for which both countries were at war. Nehru became more cautious about the UN, and after Pakistan, following a UN resolution, did not withdraw its army from the disputed territory, Nehru refused to hold a plebiscite planned for 1953. His policy in Kashmir and the integration of the state with India was often defended before the UN by diplomat Krishna Menon who successfully defended India's policy towards the region internationally.
In 1957, Menon announced in the UN Security Council an eight-hour speech defending India's position on Kashmir, to date, the speech is the longest ever given to the institution. Skillful defense of India's national interest in the UN influenced the increase in support for Indian Kashmir and the Indian press proclaimed Menon the "Hero of Kashmir". At that time Nehru was at the peak of popularity and only a small criticism came from the side of the militaristic extreme right.
Nehru foresaw the development of nuclear weapons and in 1948 he founded the Indian Atomic Energy Commission. Nuclear physicist Dr. Homi J. Bhabha became the chairman of the organization. The direction of development of India's nuclear policy was personally determined by Nehru and Bhabha. Nehru believed that the development of the program would enable India to compete with highly industrialized countries and would be the basis for building India's position in the region then threatened by Pakistan.
After the Korean War (1950-1953), he called for tensions to be released and the threat of nuclear weapons being abandoned. Nehru, fearing that the nuclear arms race would lead to excessive militarization of the globe, which would be too risky for developing countries commissioned the first-ever research into the effects of nuclear explosions and promoted denuclearization.
Social and Educational reforms
In July 1946, he emphatically stated that in the Indian state princes could not prevail militarily, but the Indian army. In January 1947, Nehru rejected the divine law of kings and in May of the same year, he declared that every state ruled by princes who refused to join the Legislative Assembly would be treated as an enemy. During the preparation of the Indian constitution, many Indian leaders (except for Nehru) thought that it would be possible for the princely states to continue to exist as envisaged by the 1935 Indian Government Act.
Thanks to the efforts of Nehru, it was decided that all the princes' states should be included in the Indian Republic. The process of republican nation and unification of India initiated by Nehru was completed by his daughter in 1971. Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, elected president in 1969, prepared a bill to abolish the official titles of the prince. However, the bill was rejected by the Supreme Court of India. Ultimately, the government pushed these changes through a 26th amendment to the constitution.
He headed the Congressional faction, which promoted Hindi as the official language. After debates with representatives of nationalities using other languages, in 1950, Hindi and English became equally official. This solution was to take fifteen years, after that time Hindi was to become the only official language. To ensure the safety of states speaking a different language, in 1963 Nehru introduced a reform thanks to which states could use English after 1965. The language issue was resolved by Nehru's successor, Lal Bahadur Shastri, who, thanks to Indira Gandhi, left English as the official language. Prime Minister Gandhi's 1967 law guaranteed unrestricted use of Hindi and English.
He was an ardent supporter of universal education for children and youth in India, he believed that education is crucial for the future development of India. His government oversaw the creation of many universities, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Management, and the National Institutes of Technology. In the five-year plans, he included ensuring free and compulsory education for all Indian children. The government oversaw the creation of rural education development programs and the construction of thousands of schools. He started initiatives to combat malnutrition, ie giving children milk and meals free of charge. Especially in rural areas, adult education centers, vocational schools, and technical schools were opened.
In 1954 he introduced the marriage law, the idea of the act was that every citizen had the right to enter into a civil marriage. This law was introduced in all provinces of India, except for Jammu and Kashmir. In 1955, a law was introduced regulating Hindu marriage. A law on Muslim marriages was also introduced, and the law provided protection for Muslim women. Polygamy has been banned and inheritance was governed by inheritance law, not Islamic law as before. Divorce was also regulated by secular law. The reforms also eliminated social inequalities resulting from caste and tribal identity. Nehru increased minority representation in the government.
He wrote article 44 of the Indian constitution, according to which all citizens throughout India are subject to a uniform civil code. The article became the basis of India's secularism. After the incorporation of the small state of Goa into India in 1961, which was still a Portuguese colony, the civil code there was based on old Portuguese regulations, but the government banned Muslim orthodox law. In other countries, the government also released Muslim citizens from compliance with Sharia law. The Indian Parliament adopted many changes in Hindu law that criminalized discrimination against women or increased women's rights and freedoms.
Sino-Indian War
From 1959 (with greater intensity in 1961), India pursued a policy of creating military outposts in disputed areas of the Chinese-Indian border, at that time 43 outlets were established in areas not previously controlled by India. After the Chinese army attacked some of these facilities, regular clashes between India and China began. As a result of armed actions, China withdrew to the pre-war eastern zone line in Tawang, while retaining China's Aksaiformerly belonging to British India. India was able to send only 14,000 soldiers to the military zone, and the government was criticized for not effectively defending the borders.
To ensure India's security, Nehru established closer relations with the United States, receiving military assistance from that country. Good relations between Nehru and US President John F. Kennedy proved useful during the war. In 1962, President of Pakistan, Ayub Khan, associated with the Americans, guaranteed India non-aggression. India also maintained good relations with the USSR, which was criticized by the free market part of the right. Nehru was also criticized for his involvement in the Non-Engaged Movement, some of the opposition believed that India should choose one permanent ally.
The effects of the war caused profound changes in the Indian army - as part of cooperation with the United States, American advisers joined the army who helped the government reorganize the outdated army. The government said the best way to repel the Chinese attack would be to use aviation (as the CIA later revealed at that time, the Chinese did not have enough fuel or airports in Tibet). During the war, Nehru sent two letters to President Kennedy in which he asked the US government to provide India with twelve fighter squadrons and a modern radar system.
The planes were to be used to defend India and the demand to bomb China was rejected due to fear of retaliation by Chinese aviation. Nehru also asked for Americans to be trained by Indian pilots. This request was rejected due to US involvement in the Cuban crisis.
The war put an end to the earlier hope of Nehru, who hoped that India and China would form a strong bloc of Asian countries, which during the Cold War would be able to resist the influence of the Western and Eastern Block. At the end of the war, the Indian army trained Tibetan armed forces, consisting of Tibetan refugees in India, refugee troops then participated in the wars with Pakistan in 1965 and 1971, and the Indian government also established contacts with Tibetan revolutionaries in Tibet.
Testament
Nehru wrote a will long before his death (June 21, 1954).
I would like to state with all seriousness that I don't want any religious funerals. I do not believe in such ceremonies and therefore submitting to them ... would be hypocrisy ...
When I die, I would like my body to be burned ... My wish is that a handful of my ashes should be thrown into the Ganges in Allahabad, which has no religious significance ... (...) Most of my ashes should be ... lifted by plane and scattered from above over the fields where the Indian peasants labor so that they can mix with dust and soil, becoming an inseparable part of India.
Therefore, the last will did not concern general matters, but personal matters. On the other hand, sentences from the reading "India yesterday and today" can be considered a kind of socio-political will.
Naturally, I want India to move forward in material development, to fulfill its 5-year plans, and to raise the standard of living of its large population. I want tight controversies of today (...) In particular, I hope that the curse of castes will end (...) I care not only about our material progress but also about the quality of our nation (...) Strength is needed, but prudence is more important and wisdom. Only a combination of strength and wisdom gives good results.
Commemoration
In 1955 he was awarded the highest Indian decoration, the Order of Bharat Ratna. In 1964, the future president of India, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, founded the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund. The foundation has been awarding the prestigious Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fellowship since 1968. In modern India, there are numerous monuments and public institutions named after Jawaharlal. One of the most prestigious Indian universities is Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi. Near Mumbai, there is a seaport named after the founder of independent India. Several documentary films tell about the life of Pandit Nehru.
In Poland, in Warsaw, in the current Mokotów district, in the years 1973 to 2019, there was a street named after Jawaharlal Nehru.
Decorations
Bharat Ratna (1955)
Order of the Companions of OR Tambo (2005, South Africa ) - posthumously
Honorary Doctorates
Columbia University (1949)
Death
After 1962, the Indian leader deteriorated and spent a month in rehabilitation in Kashmir. Some historians attribute this sudden decline in Nehru's health to disappointment and surprise after the Sino-Indian War. Nehru considered the war treason on the part of the Chinese, who have so far conducted a friendly policy towards India. After returning from Kashmir in May 1964, he suffered a stroke, and a month later he suffered a heart attack. He died on May 27, 1964. The prime minister was cremated on the Jamuna River, hundreds of thousands of mourners participated in his funeral.
